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Short and simple. I look forward to see the series!

If the domain name and URLs are the same, then you shouldn't worry. Prompt for an reindexation using Google Webmaster Tools to let Google know that the site has changed.
If URLs have changed, make 301 redirets to related pages.

I am guessing that you are using RWD and not a mobile site?

Well, your issues are with tags and I would rather noindex them than using a canonical tag.

There are no reason for the search engines to find tag categories and it doesn't help a searcher either (on site it can be useful however).

rel="canonical" should be used for content which is similiar like a product with different attributes, a product with multiple URLs with the same content, or if you syndicate content from another site.

Remember that rel="canonical" is only good to use if you cannot hardcode your way out of it. If you can remove the need for the tag, by either removing the indexation of the tag category or making the blog function different, then that would be the deal solution.

Read about rel="canonical" here: https://support.google.com/webmasters/answer/139066?hl=en

Subdomains are seperate from your root domain SEO. I guess that you do not want search engines to discover the new site?

Deploy a noindex tag on the site to make sure that it is not indexed in the search engines. However, if you place it in a subfolder on your site (e.g. domain.com/site/) I will affect the overall impression of the site from a search engines perspective.

You could take a look at the Moz guide about domains (it could help you understand the difference in subdomains and root domains in respect to SEO): http://moz.com/learn/seo/domain

Regarding Google AdWords, it counts the actual landing page that the user (bot) ends up at. So if you are redirecting from 1 page to another on your domain, that is perfectly fine. Google AdWords accounts for CTR, relevance etc. (see more here: https://support.google.com/adwords/answer/2454010?hl=en).

This means that the QS will be calculated using the landing page after all redirects, just remember to keep the number of redirects to a minimum due to load time for the user.

Another thing, if you wanted to make an ad which pointed to a redirect which did not work, your ad would get disaproved. Google AdWords will surely keep you notified if your landing page is not working.

Like Highland is saying, most often a redirect is used to track a click from AdWords, if they want to collect additional data about their campaign.

Well first off, the meta description is not something that Google will be forced to use and as far as I can tell, the description looks fine in the code.

_ "Google will sometimes use the meta description of a page in search results snippets, if we think it gives users a more accurate description than would be possible purely from the on-page content" _- from support.google.com: https://support.google.com/webmasters/answer/35624?hl=en#1 (I created a link that jumps to the specific section).

Regarding your issue with site command, remember to remove the space in between the command and the url. E.g. site:domain.com.

The user clicks on call or cancel button on their phone, which is out of your hands (unless you are running it in an app).

In order to track a call, you could try out call tracking software e.g.: https://calltrackingmetrics.com/

Another more basic option is to assign a phone number which is only listed on a specific landing page that only mobile users see. The only thing that should change is the phone number (to avoid cloaking).

You could then have your phone company forward that call to your number and you could register the number of calls there.

Do you mean that Magento adds a prefix on your meta descriptions? Or do you mean that the category is included in the URL?

Just wanted to make sure that I understand it correctly, and I think that you ask about the meta description tag. Have you taken a look at the meta description field in System => Configuration => Catalog => Search Engine Optimization?

You could also take a look at the sidewide settings for the tags: http://www.screenpages.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Generall-Config2-580x324.png

What is your URL?

You could possibly just tag your ad links and track goals in Analytics. Use Google URL builder for tagging LinkedIn as Source and cpc as medium (paid ads): https://support.google.com/analytics/answer/1033867?hl=en

If you want to filter the traffic, I would do that in a custom report and not in a entire view. This would make sure you do not need to make a new view and your data will be preserved. By the way, remember to include m.linkedin.com and other variants, as most of the traffic would come from different platforms.

Well it should be empty,  but I don't see any problems with this page in particular: http://www.dutchgrown.com/fall-planted-bulbs/tulips/tulip-arma.html

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Are there a description that you could show me which contains the prefix? By the way, you should be careful using the category option for your products. Especially with Magento, you can run into Duplicate Content issues when you have the category as a part of the product URL.

Sure, I can see the issues there. Having a look at the sitemap and submitting that would be my best guess.

I will recommend that you take a look at the Moz Guide on this topic: http://moz.com/learn/seo/international-seo

Google will differentiate content if it is served on a different domain in a different content. So a 1:1 relationship should in theory not create DC as long as it is not in the same language. However, I would take the time to make sure that the content is written properly in the right tongue and take into account local cultural aspects.

Which method are you using?

domain.com/fr/

fr.domain.com

or

domain.fr?

Sometimes I have stumbled upon different versions of a social media, e.g. m.linkedin.com.

Just make sure to check what domain the LinkedIn source arrives from as some have different names in your Analytics (e.g. the mobile browser inside a social media app).

I wouldn't change it. The benefit of sacrifising browser support is minimal to none.

I would instead focus on decreasing load speed, creating better content or looking at schema markup (if it is relevant).

What is the URL?

Yes use noindex, follow for that

Most often the problem with Magento is DC and the recommendation is to use /category/subcategory/ for breadcrumbs and normal navigation and then use /product for the actual product page.

I agree that common UX dictates that it should more like, /category/subcategory/product, but Magento (and other e-commerce CMS) have issues with making more than one URL for a product.

I would stick to /product and make the necessary 301 redirects.

Sure no problem. That is what I would do ín that case. The best theoretical thing is to redirect all URLs to the best matching page and use /category/subcategory/page and make sure that DC is not an issue. However, with Magento, I have seen many issues with redirects going bad, and my strategy is now more time focused

Well, you could be present with a local result, organic and paid (AdWords) and have different pages with variants of your keyword rank for that term.

What is the URL of your site?

Try to have a look at Dr. Petes analysis of the SERP: http://moz.com/blog/the-incredible-shrinking-serp