This is a tough question because we don't know the business objectives of the company or site. If it's one company and you are trying to get local listing, why not just get a Google + page and verify all your local pages via the post card Google sends through the mail.

If all locations sell different things (car parts vs women shoes), new domain or sub-domain. But if your client is selling the same thing like Starbucks, then example.com/city.

I would personally create a page with schema.org markup for addresses and link them to /city

You can go with either one. Your question is probably the number 1 asked question on Moz. LOL

I would do folders "if" creating a multi-lingual site. Let's take WordPress for example. 1 folder, 1 install, 2 languages, no multiple logins, 1 database.

For subdomains, there is no passing of PR. A subdomain is like having a brand new site. subdomain.example.com and example.com are completely different sites. The only reason I would run subdomains is if I am doing something where the "site search" algorithm will be tweaked a little... like craigslist.org. Every city has a subdomain and the algorithm may be just a little different. Maybe you may need a subdomain for security issues, but in general go with folders.

Also, the stronger example.com/english becomes, the more likely example.com/mandarin becomes. It shares link juice. This example doesn't happen when you use subdomains.

Hope that helps!

Here is the answer to all your problems! ENJOY!

http://www.screamingfrog.co.uk/seo-spider/

I wouldn't worry about adding 100 new pages. Go for it. You also have to think about the opportunity cost of not creating the additional 100 pages. You will probably be missing out on something. With that said, make sure that you are creating high quality pages because it helps your domain overall. And remember this is for the long-term. Whenever I launch a new page, it gets to the 2nd page fast. Within the next 6 months to 1 year it's normally on the 1st page.

Listen to Matt Cutts awesome answer here LOL!!!: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=suTDT6-Q8NE

I think your special characters may depend on the search engine. Go to Russia's search engine and find out if your URLs display better there: http://www.yandex.com/

I believe Yandex is more popular there than Google is.

Good question. I don't know of any tools that are like Followerwonk but for Facebook. Even if there was a tool for what you are looking for, I don't think it would be effective because it's not like you can message the fans of the page. 

If you are looking for tools to help your FB marketing, look at this post:

http://moz.com/ugc/13-social-media-software-tools-for-marketing-your-company-or-clients

I agree.

What I would do is make a $1 test product and run my American Express card to see if it reported. Also I would buy quantity 2 to see if GA is recording that I made 1 transaction with 2 items.